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Consumers, business firms, and governments often do not have the funds available

shares, or pension and insurance claims; when loaned out at interest or invested in equity shares, they provide a source of investment funds.

These savings may accumulate in the form of savings deposits, savings and loan

which could earn interest or dividends if put to productive use.

Savers and investors, on the other hand, accumulate funds

to make expenditures, pay their debts, or complete other transactions and must borrow or sell equity to obtain the money they need to conduct their operations.

They include commercial banks, savings banks,

savings and loan associations, and such nonbank institutions as credit unions, insurance companies, pension funds, investment companies, and finance companies.

Finance is the process of channeling these

are called financial intermediaries.

The institutions that channel funds from savers to users

funds in the form of credit, loans, or invested capital to those economic entities that most need them or can put them to the most productive use.

Three broad areas in finance have developed specialized institutions,

to serve the needs of these areas jointly and separately.

In developed nations, an elaborate structure of financial markets and institutions exists

procedures, standards, and goals: business finance, personal finance, and public finance.

Business finance is a form of applied economics that uses

the quantitative data provided by accounting, the tools of statistics, and economic theory in an effort to optimize the goals of a corporation or other business entity.

Business financing makes use of short-term credit in the form

of trade credit, bank loans, and commercial paper.

The basic financial decisions involved include an estimate of future

asset requirements and the optimum combination of funds needed to obtain those assets.

Long-term funds are obtained by the sale of securities (stocks and bonds) to a variety of financial institutions and individuals

through the operations of national and international capital markets.

Individuals typically obtain mortgages from commercial banks

involved include an estimate of future asset requirements and the optimum combination of funds needed to obtain those assets.

Personal finance deals primarily with family budgets, the

investment of personal savings, and the use of consumer credit.

The basic financial decisions

and savings and loan associations to purchase their homes, while financing for the purchase of consumer durable goods can be obtained from banks and finance companies.

The debt owed by national governments is usually referred to as the national debt and

is thus distinguished from the public debt of state and local government bodies.

Public debt is obligations of governments, particularly those evidenced by

securities, to pay certain sums to the holders at some future time.

Public debt is distinguished from private debt,

which consists of the obligations of individuals, business firms, and nongovernmental organizations.

In the United States, bonds issued by the states and local governments are

been regarded as a distinct type of obligation, in part because paper money is usually no longer payable in gold, silver, or other specific items of intrinsic value.

In the United Kingdom, debt or loans incurred by local authorities

known as municipals.

In the past, paper money was frequently regarded in the United States as a portion of the public debt, but in more recent years money has

are referred to as corporation, or county, loans, thus distinguishing them from central government debt, which is frequently referred to simply as funds.

Similarly, government property normally cannot be seized

only such legal action to enforce payment as the governments themselves prescribe.

Public debt is an obligation of a government; and, although

individuals are called upon in their capacity as taxpayers to provide funds for payment of interest and principal on the debt, their own property cannot be attached to meet the obligations if the government fails to do so.

With sovereign governments, the debt holders can take

to meet these obligations.

уставной капитал

seed capital

оборотный капитал

authorised capital

начальный капитал

basic capital

скидка

discount

валюта

percent

процент

currency

оценка

shortage

девальвация

evaluation

нехватка

devaluation

облигация

project

кредитор

creditor

проект

loan

капитал

services

услуги

funds

фонды

capital

обслуживать

to offer

предлагать

to serve

продавать

to sell

выгодный

low

низкий

profitable

высокий

high

мелкий

private

частный

small

иностранный

foreign

доверие

confidence

капиталовложения

investments

управление

management

валюта

currency

ставка

procent

процент

rate