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The origin of the library dates back to the seventh century, but all its books,

and the collection was built up again by gift and purchase during the 17th and 18th centuries.

To reach it, you must be prepared for a long climb, for it is situated

with the exception of some books printed before 1500 and six manuscripts were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666.

The archives, however, were preserved. The Library was refounded after the Fire

right up near the Whispering Gallery which encircles the base of the cathedral dome.

Let us start with the highest library in London,

the Capitular Library of St. Paul's Cathedral.

It would be hard to think of a subject which

the Capitular Library of St. Paul's Cathedral.

The archives, however, were preserved. The Library was refounded after the Fire

has not got a library devoted especially to it.

Let us start with the highest library in London,

with the exception of some books printed before 1500 and six manuscripts were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666.

The origin of the library dates back to the seventh century, but all its books,

and the collection was built up again by gift and purchase during the 17th and 18th centuries.

From the highest library in London to the biggest –

which, of course, is that of the British Museum.

The British Museum Library contains about six million books

right up near the Whispering Gallery which encircles the base of the cathedral dome.

To reach it, you must be prepared for a long climb, for it is situated

with the exception of some books printed before 1500 and six manuscripts were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666.

The origin of the library dates back to the seventh century, but all its books,

and the large circular Reading Room is in the centre of the Museum building.

Among novelists of worldwide reputation are Graham Greene, Angus Wilson

among them the Edinburgh International Festival, the music festivals at Aldeburgh, Windsor and Cheltenham and opera at Glyndebourne.

The British Museum Library contains about six million books

and the large circular Reading Room is in the centre of the Museum building.

From the highest library in London to the biggest –

which, of course, is that of the British Museum.

Throughout Britain there are festivals and centres of artistic activity –

William Golding, Iris Murdoch and Muriel Spark.

British music owes much to the composer Benjamin Britten,

open shelves and also the catalogues for the whole library.

In the Reading Room is a reference section of 30,000 volumes on

and, among younger artists, Richard Smith, Richard Hamilton, who painted the first "pop" picture.

In 1841 the London Library in St. James Square was founded –

a library of about 600,000 volumes, mainly devoted to the humanities and fine arts.

Notable figures include sculptors Henry Moore and Anthony Caro, painters Francis Bacon and Graham Sutherland

whose influence has produced a new school of British opera.

Since Newton's time, figures from the UK have contributed to the

development of most major branches of science.

Technologically, the UK is also

with laboratories such as the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford becoming famous in their own right.

This method promoted empiricism and induction in scientific enquiry and

amongst the world's leaders.

Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at either Oxford or Cambridge University,

was one of the driving forces behind the scientific revolution.

Since Newton's time, figures from the UK have contributed to the

development of most major branches of science.

Since then, the United Kingdom has continued

was one of the driving forces behind the scientific revolution.

This method promoted empiricism and induction in scientific enquiry and

this tradition of technical creativity.

Alan Turing, Frank Whittle (inventor of the jet engine), Charles Babbage (who devised the idea of the computer)

and Alexander Fleming (discoverer of penicillin) were all British.

The UK remains one of the leading providers of technological innovations today, providing inventions as diverse as

this tradition of technical creativity.

Other famous scientists, engineers and inventors from the UK include: John Logie Baird, William Caxton,

and Alexander Fleming (discoverer of penicillin) were all British.

Alan Turing, Frank Whittle (inventor of the jet engine), Charles Babbage (who devised the idea of the computer)

Richard Trevithick, Robert Hooke, Humphry Davy, Robert Watson-Watt, Henry Bessemer and others.

Since then, the United Kingdom has continued

the World Wide Web and Viagra (created by Tim Berners-Lee and Pfizer respectively).

This method promoted empiricism and induction in scientific enquiry and

this tradition of technical creativity.

Since then, the United Kingdom has continued

Richard Trevithick, Robert Hooke, Humphry Davy, Robert Watson-Watt, Henry Bessemer and others.

Other famous scientists, engineers and inventors from the UK include: John Logie Baird, William Caxton,

was one of the driving forces behind the scientific revolution.

The UK remains one of the leading providers of technological innovations today, providing inventions as diverse as

the World Wide Web and Viagra (created by Tim Berners-Lee and Pfizer respectively).

Since Newton's time, figures from the UK have contributed to the

development of most major branches of science.

Since then, the United Kingdom has continued

this tradition of technical creativity.

Historically, many of the UK's greatest scientists have been based at either Oxford or Cambridge University,

with laboratories such as the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge and the Clarendon Laboratory in Oxford becoming famous in their own right.

This method promoted empiricism and induction in scientific enquiry and

was one of the driving forces behind the scientific revolution.

In modern times, other institutions such as the Red Brick

tradition of technical creativity.

He is also famous as the father of classical mechanics, formulated as his three laws and

was one of the driving forces behind the scientific revolution.

This method promoted empiricism and induction in scientific enquiry and

and New Universities are catching up with Oxbridge.

Since then, the United Kingdom has continued this

as the co-inventor (with Gottfried Leibniz) of differential calculus.

During the 19th century, Russian and

declared its independence from the British Empire and became a state.

In 1698, Peter the Great and William Penn had met in London, and in 1763 a Boston merchant had anchored

between Americans and Russians.

Earlier contacts had occurred

American frontiers met in Alaska.

The relations between the two states are usually considered to have begun in 1776, when the United States

his ship at the port of Kronstadt after a direct transatlantic voyage.

In 1867, Alaska was sold

his ship at the port of Kronstadt after a direct transatlantic voyage.

During the 19th century, Russian and

American frontiers met in Alaska.

In 1698, Peter the Great and William Penn had met in London, and in 1763 a Boston merchant had anchored

to the United States.

Russia had colonized

Alaska.

Russia had colonized

allied during the Boxer Rebellion.

The United States claimed Wrangel Island, Herald Island,

Alaska.

In 1867, Alaska was sold

to the United States.

In 1900, Russia and America were

Bennett Island, Jeannette Island, and Henrietta Island in 1881.

The United States claimed Wrangel Island, Herald Island,

Bennett Island, Jeannette Island, and Henrietta Island in 1881.

They defeated the Boxer rebels in the

allied during the Boxer Rebellion.

Russia had occupied

Manchuria at this time.

In 1900, Russia and America were

Qing Empire.

Russia had colonized

American frontiers met in Alaska.

During the 19th century, Russian and

Qing Empire.

In 1900, Russia and America were

allied during the Boxer Rebellion.

They defeated the Boxer rebels in the

Alaska.

The United States claimed Wrangel Island, Herald Island,

Bennett Island, Jeannette Island, and Henrietta Island in 1881.

Earlier contacts had occurred

between Americans and Russians.

In 1698, Peter the Great and William Penn had met in London, and in 1763 a Boston merchant had anchored

to the United States.

In 1867, Alaska was sold

his ship at the port of Kronstadt after a direct transatlantic voyage.

In 1900, Russia and America were

allied during the Boxer Rebellion.

In 1867, Alaska was sold

to the United States.

They defeated the Boxer rebels in the

Bennett Island, Jeannette Island, and Henrietta Island in 1881.

The United States claimed Wrangel Island, Herald Island,

Qing Empire.

In 1698, Peter the Great and William Penn had met in London, and in 1763 a Boston merchant had anchored

American frontiers met in Alaska.

During the 19th century, Russian and

between Americans and Russians.

They defeated the Boxer rebels in the

his ship at the port of Kronstadt after a direct transatlantic voyage.

Earlier contacts had occurred

Qing Empire.

In 1698, Peter the Great and William Penn had met in London, and in 1763 a Boston merchant had anchored

between Americans and Russians.

Earlier contacts had occurred

Qing Empire.

They defeated the Boxer rebels in the

Bennett Island, Jeannette Island, and Henrietta Island in 1881.

The United States claimed Wrangel Island, Herald Island,

his ship at the port of Kronstadt after a direct transatlantic voyage.

Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were

established late due to U.S. hostility towards communism.

The Russian Civil War started in 1918, and the Americans aided

the anti-communists forces, however, they failed and the Soviet Union was established in 1922.

During World War I, the United States

the Russian Empire and the United States and predate the post-Soviet Russo-United States relations.

The relations between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics succeed the relations between

allied with Russia in 1917.

At the end of this war, the first signs of post-war mistrust and hostility began to appear, escalating into the Cold War,

the Russian Empire and the United States and predate the post-Soviet Russo-United States relations.

During World War II the two countries

were for a brief period, allies.

The relations between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics succeed the relations between

a period of tense and hostile relations between the two countries, with periods of detente.

Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were

established late due to U.S. hostility towards communism.

During World War II the two countries

most Americans became sympathetic to the Soviet cause.

At the end of this war, the first signs of post-war mistrust and hostility began to appear, escalating into the Cold War,

until November 16, 1933 during Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration – the last Western power to do so.

But when Germany invaded the Soviet Union during World War II,

were for a brief period, allies.

The United States viewed the Soviet Union as a pariah state during its nascent years and did not extend full diplomatic relations

a period of tense and hostile relations between the two countries, with periods of detente.

The United States viewed the Soviet Union as a pariah state during its nascent years and did not extend full diplomatic relations

until November 16, 1933 during Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration – the last Western power to do so.

The alliance of the United States, the United Kingdom,

most Americans became sympathetic to the Soviet cause.

When the United States joined the war in December 1941, $11,000,000,000

and the Soviet Union led to the defeat of Nazi Germany.

But when Germany invaded the Soviet Union during World War II,

in Lend Lease aid was allocated to the Soviet Union .

Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were

the Russian Empire and the United States and predate the post-Soviet Russo-United States relations.

In 1867, Alaska was sold

to the United States.

The United States claimed Wrangel Island, Herald Island,

established late due to U.S. hostility towards communism.

The relations between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics succeed the relations between

Bennett Island, Jeannette Island, and Henrietta Island in 1881.

The expansion of S.U. influence into Eastern Europe following Germany's defeat worried the liberal democracies of the west,

leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991- is known as the Cold War.

This protracted a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle- lasting from about 1947 to the period

particularly the United States, which had established virtual economic and political primacy in Western Europe.

The two nations promoted two opposing economic and political ideologies

of previous divisions between the two nations.

The end of World War II saw the resurfacing

and the two nations competed for international influence along these lines.

At the end of this war, the first signs of post-war mistrust and hostility began to appear, escalating into the Cold War,

and the two nations competed for international influence along these lines.

This protracted a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle- lasting from about 1947 to the period

a period of tense and hostile relations between the two countries, with periods of detente.

The United States viewed the Soviet Union as a pariah state during its nascent years and did not extend full diplomatic relations

leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991- is known as the Cold War.

The two nations promoted two opposing economic and political ideologies

until November 16, 1933 during Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration – the last Western power to do so.

The United States extended the Marshall Plan to the Soviet Union but under such terms the Americans knew the Soviets

nuclear arms race that persisted until the collapse of the Soviet Union.

The Soviet Union detonated its first atomic weapon in 1949,

ending the United States' monopoly on nuclear weapons.

The United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a conventional and

would never accept, namely, the acceptance of free elections not characteristic of Stalinist communism.

After Germany's defeat, the United States sought to help

its Western European allies economically with the Marshall Plan.

The two nations promoted two opposing economic and political ideologies

and the two nations competed for international influence along these lines.

The United States extended the Marshall Plan to the Soviet Union but under such terms the Americans knew the Soviets

its Western European allies economically with the Marshall Plan.

After Germany's defeat, the United States sought to help

would never accept, namely, the acceptance of free elections not characteristic of Stalinist communism.

This protracted a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle- lasting from about 1947 to the period

leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991- is known as the Cold War.

Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were

the Russian Empire and the United States and predate the post-Soviet Russo-United States relations.

The relations between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics succeed the relations between

established late due to U.S. hostility towards communism.

During World War II the two countries

and the two nations competed for international influence along these lines.

The two nations promoted two opposing economic and political ideologies

were for a brief period, allies.

They accomplished this most notably through the formation of NATO

which had similar results with the Eastern Bloc.

With its growing influence on Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union sought to counter this with the Comecon in 1949,

which was basically a mutual defense agreement.

The United States and its Western European allies sought

which essentially did the same thing, though was more an economic cooperation agreement instead of a clear plan to rebuild.

The Soviet Union countered with the Warsaw Pact,

to strengthen their bonds and spite the Soviet Union .

Relations between the United States of America and the Russian Federation

since 1991 began after the demise of the Soviet Union .

The Soviet Union countered with the Warsaw Pact,

which had similar results with the Eastern Bloc.

They accomplished this most notably through the formation of NATO

which was basically a mutual defense agreement.

Relations between the two nations improved after the collapse,

but have recently become more tense.

Some have speculated that a new arms race or "

since 1991 began after the demise of the Soviet Union .

Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were

but have recently become more tense.

Relations between the two nations improved after the collapse,

new Cold War" may be imminent.

Relations between the United States of America and the Russian Federation

established late due to U.S. hostility towards communism.

Some have speculated that a new arms race or "

new Cold War" may be imminent.

Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were

signed by Gorbachev and U.S. president George H.W. Bush.

In the late 1980s, Eastern European nations took advantage of

the relaxation of Soviet control under Mikhail Gorbachev and began to break away from communist rule.

On July 31, 1991, the START I treaty cutting back nuclear warheads was

established late due to U.S. hostility towards communism.

In December 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed

between Russia and the United States warmed rapidly.

On July 31, 1991, the START I treaty cutting back nuclear warheads was

signed by Gorbachev and U.S. president George H.W. Bush.

In the late 1980s, Eastern European nations took advantage of

and the Commonwealth of Independent States was formed.

With the ending of Communism, relations

the relaxation of Soviet control under Mikhail Gorbachev and began to break away from communist rule.

However, the reforms, known as "shock therapy", produced a major economic crisis in Russia, resulting in skyrocketing poverty,

between Russia and the United States warmed rapidly.

With the ending of Communism, relations

and the Commonwealth of Independent States was formed.

The aggressive privatization/free market reforms implemented by Russian President Boris Yeltsin during the 1990s

and the rise of corrupt "oligarchs" who amassed power and tremendous wealth after acquiring control of the former Soviet state industries.

In December 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed

were strongly encouraged and supported by the U.S. administrations of George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton, and by American economists and corporations.

On July 31, 1991, the START I treaty cutting back nuclear warheads was

were strongly encouraged and supported by the U.S. administrations of George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton, and by American economists and corporations.

In December 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed

signed by Gorbachev and U.S. president George H.W. Bush.

However, the reforms, known as "shock therapy", produced a major economic crisis in Russia, resulting in skyrocketing poverty,

and the Commonwealth of Independent States was formed.

The aggressive privatization/free market reforms implemented by Russian President Boris Yeltsin during the 1990s

and the rise of corrupt "oligarchs" who amassed power and tremendous wealth after acquiring control of the former Soviet state industries.

In the late 1980s, Eastern European nations took advantage of

nuclear arms race that persisted until the collapse of the Soviet Union.

The United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a conventional and

established late due to U.S. hostility towards communism.

After Germany's defeat, the United States sought to help

the relaxation of Soviet control under Mikhail Gorbachev and began to break away from communist rule.

Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were

its Western European allies economically with the Marshall Plan.

Although lending tacit support to its historical ally, Serbia, Russia stood aside

and did not attempt to block U.S./NATO military interventions in Bosnia and Kosovo during the Balkan conflicts of the 1990s.

Public order and

Russia largely stayed on the sidelines during this period.

During the presidencies of Vladimir Putin and George W. Bush,

stability deteriorated greatly.

In regard to international affairs,

the U.S. and Russia began to have more serious disagreements.

In 2002, Bush withdrew the U.S. from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty

in order to move forward with plans for a missile defense system.

Under Putin, Russia became more assertive in international affairs than it had been under his predecessor;

and did not attempt to block U.S./NATO military interventions in Bosnia and Kosovo during the Balkan conflicts of the 1990s.

Although lending tacit support to its historical ally, Serbia, Russia stood aside

under Bush, the U.S. took an increasingly unilateral course in its foreign policy, particularly in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks.

During the presidencies of Vladimir Putin and George W. Bush,

the U.S. and Russia began to have more serious disagreements.

In 2002, Bush withdrew the U.S. from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty

nuclear arms race that persisted until the collapse of the Soviet Union.

In the late 1980s, Eastern European nations took advantage of

under Bush, the U.S. took an increasingly unilateral course in its foreign policy, particularly in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks.

The United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a conventional and

in order to move forward with plans for a missile defense system.

Under Putin, Russia became more assertive in international affairs than it had been under his predecessor;

the relaxation of Soviet control under Mikhail Gorbachev and began to break away from communist rule.

They accomplished this most notably through the formation of NATO

established late due to U.S. hostility towards communism.

Full diplomatic relations between the two countries were

to strengthen their bonds and spite the Soviet Union .

In the late 1980s, Eastern European nations took advantage of

which was basically a mutual defense agreement.

The United States and its Western European allies sought

the relaxation of Soviet control under Mikhail Gorbachev and began to break away from communist rule.

to establish ties with

культурные связи

decadent

установить связь

cultural contact

вырождающийся; вырождаться, перерастать (into - во что-л.); ухудшаться

degenerate

декадентский, , упадочный

elitist

сильная связь, близкие отношения, тесный контакт

ruling elite

человек, принадлежащий к элите

close, intimate, strong ties

установить связь

to establish ties with

правящая элита

ruling elite

падение, спад, упадок; конец

dominance

господство; влияние; преобладание

decline

бунт, восстание, мятеж

uprising

правящая элита

a patron

покровитель, шеф; глава, заступник, руководитель

dominance ( in, over )

город, заботящийся о литературном образовании жителей

literary-minded city

господство; влияние; преобладание

to confuse ( with )

запутывать, сбивать с толку

Guildhall

книги, выдаваемые на дом и справочники (справочная литература)

lending and reference

город, заботящийся о литературном образовании жителей

literary-minded city

Гилдхолл (здание ратуши Лондонского Сити)

fine arts

изобразительное искусство

layout

Гилдхолл (здание ратуши Лондонского Сити)

mother country

показ, выставка

disperse

разбрасывать

Guildhall

метрополия (по отношению к колониям); отечество, отчизна, родина

curiosity shop

ставить в тупик, сбивать с толку

cloister

антикварный магазин, «Лавка древностей» (по одноименному роману Диккенса)

disperse

разбрасывать

baffle

монастырь

convivial

ставить в тупик, сбивать с толку

plunge

ныряние, погружение

baffle

праздничный, веселый

aloof

отчужденный, равнодушный, надменный